Categories
Leadership

Foucault and the Critique of Modernity

Foucault’s work can be summarized in three major shifts from the archaeological focus on systems of knowledge in the 1960s, to the genealogical focus on modalities of power in the 1970s and to the focus on technologies of the self, ethics, and freedom in the 1980s. Foucault contributed in many fields in the humanities and social sciences. As a member of postmodernist movement and in line with their deconstruction paradigm, he tried to show the problematic and suspicious aspects of rationality, knowledge, subjectivity, and the production of social norms. He thought that the quest of power invaded social and personal life and pervaded schools, hospitals, prisons, and social sciences. Foucault saw a link between power, truth and knowledge and he argued that liberal-humanist values became entangled with, and the supports of technologies of domination. He criticized both macro theorists who see power only in terms of class or the state, and micro theorists who analyze institutions and face-to-face interaction while ignoring power altogether.


T
his post is not a biographical work on Michel Foucault, but a quick sketch of his life and the environment in which he was educated and these help to better understand the philosophical (since his academic formation is psychology and history) aspects of his works: (a) research and analysis of philosophy’s traditional critical project in a new historical manner, and (b) critical engagement with the thought of traditional philosophers.

 

Michel Foucault (1926-1984) is one of the French figures usually associated to the radical postmodern philosophies. Despite his bourgeois origins, he sympathized early with vulnerable groups such as artists, homosexuals, and prisoners. Like many young thinkers of his generation, Foucault was largely influenced by the (a) French tradition of history and philosophy of science represented by Georges Canguilhem, (b) French avant-garde literature with the writings of Georges Bataille and Maurice Blanchot, and (c) philosophical milieu and its methods of writing history based on archaeology and genealogy techniques.

 

The purpose of this post is to explore and reflect upon Foucault’s critique of modernity. First, an analysis of his historiographical approaches (archaeology and genealogy) is provided. Second, Foucault’s postmodern perspectives on the nature of modern power and his argument that the modern subject is a construct of domination are explained. Third, the political implications of Foucault’s genealogical method are analyzed as well as his work on technologies of the self. Finally, by taking the examples of institutions and technologies, this post provides some indications of the conservative aspects of Foucault’s work.

Postmodernism and the Critique of Modernity

 

Modernism was the cultural revolution of the 20th century, which is as important as Romanticism for the 19th century and the Enlightenment for the 18th century. The word modern has its origins in the early medieval modernus, meaning that which is present, of our time, and by extension, new, novel, or contemporary. From about 1900 to the 1960s, modernism reigned as a succession of varied movements and styles that reacted against historicism and recognized individual perception and experience as the cornerstone of the creative process.

 

Postmodernism arrived in the mid-1960s and reached its apex in the early 80s. Postmodernism is an intellectual current that rejects the Enlightenment project of modernity. This involves, among others, a radical critique (and often uncritical rejection) of objectivity, the a priori subject as source of meaning, authenticity, and authority, the importance of truth and abstract reason, the teleological approach of history, the universalizing grand narratives that aspire to completeness and the distinction between high and low culture. For postmodernists, science is nothing more than a narration, myth, or a social construction. 

Analysis of Foucault’s Historiographical Approaches

 

Archaeology and genealogy are the two approaches Foucault applied to his critique of historical reason. To understand these historiographical models, one should trace the evolution of philosophy from its beginnings with Socrates (and his project of questioning knowledge) to Kant (for whom philosophy is the critique of knowledge) through Descartes (rationalism), Locke (empiricism), and Hume (induction). For instance, Hume thought that expectations are built up based on recurrent experiences that the world in the future will be similar to the past, without any knowledge of anything. For Kant, reality is the sum of what can be experienced. He added that the mind has a set of rules for how experience must be constructed. Kant concluded that the rules must always apply to reality.

 

Foucault rejected this prescriptive definition of knowledge that establishes a set of conditions which, if met, would equate knowledge with truth, making it certain and definitive. He created a set of rules which can account for how men, at a specific time and place and in particular domains do produce knowledge, separate this knowledge from error, opinion, and beliefs. Foucault did not only accept the scandal of existing knowledge (men at different times and places have known differently), he made this scandal the focal point of his analysis, seeking to identify (using archaeology) the historical conditions of possibility of knowledge.

 

The history of knowledge, he argued, can be written only on the basis of what was contemporaneous with it, and certainly not in terms of reciprocal influence but in terms of conditions and a priori’s established in time. By using Nietzsche’s genealogy, he described his conception of history as genealogy by delegitimizing and proving the objectiveness of the present and the foreignness of the past. Foucault rejected any form of global theorizing, avoided totalizing forms of analysis and was critical of systematicity. He showed that ideas are usually taken to be permanent truths about human nature and society changes in the course of history.

Knowledge, Power, and Foucault’s Perspectives

Foucault’s theory of power is opposed with classical approaches based on a juridico-political conception of power (Hobbes, Machiavelli) or on class oppositions and domination (Marx). Foucault’s works explored the shifting patterns of power within a society and the ways in which power relates to the self. This led to different appearances of power such as disciplinary power, bio-power, governmental power and repressive power. Discipline and Punish followed Madness and Civilization and The Birth of the Clinic was the next stage in Foucault’s massive project of tracing the genealogy of control institutions (asylums, teaching hospitals, and prisons) and the human sciences were symbiotically linked with them (psychiatry, clinical medicine, criminology, penology).

 

The main concern of Foucault throughout his publications was the relationship between knowledge and power and the articulation of each on the other. Nietzsche thought that a will to power motivates human behavior and that traditional values had lost their power over society. For Foucault, following Nietzsche, knowledge ceases to be a liberation and becomes a mode of surveillance, regulation, and discipline. Foucault opposed the humanist position that once we gain power, we cease to know (because it makes us blind) and that only those who are no way implicated in tyranny, can attain the truth. For Foucault, such forms of knowledge as psychiatry and criminology are directly related to the exercise of power. He added that power itself creates new objects of knowledge and accumulates new bodies of information.

 

Technologies of the Self and Political Implications of Foucault’s Genealogical Method

 

The third major shift of Foucault’s work is the focus on technologies of the self, ethics, and freedom in the 1980s. Technologies of the self are practices by which subjects constitute themselves within and through systems of power. These systems often seem to be either natural or imposed from above. Foucault theorized that the body is a subject of technologies of power. These technologies are established through discourses of “expertise” such as medicine, law, and science. Through these discourses or truth games, individuals develop knowledge about themselves, while bodies become the site of domination through technologies of power, practices of discipline, and surveillance.

 

Foucault’s work on modern power and government inspired other works (for example, neoliberalism of the New Right) to explore politics and political institutions. Similar to Foucault’s genealogies, most of these works embody hostility to the humanist notions of the subject and truth. This hostility sets up various themes which can be seen as constitutive of a Foucauldian approach to the study of political institutions. These themes can be found in Foucault’s work on power and government. They can be divided into those arising from a critique of traditional structuralism, a critique of the subject, and a rejection of objectivism.

 

Foucault’s genealogies provided examples for a political science that would take seriously the anti-foundationalist view that we have neither pure experiences nor pure reason. Such view certainly overlaps considerably with Foucault’s concern to decentralize structures, analyze the ways in which individuals are constructed by their social context, and renounce appeals to a natural or immanent reason.

 

Critical Comments on Foucauldian Perspectives

 

Having outlined some of Foucault’s arguments against technologies and institutions, the first criticism of his work is that he refused to see any advantage in modernity in some domains like medicine. Unlike Habermas who thought that science is unproblematic when it operates according to the rules of right, Foucault failed on repressive forms of rationalization and never delineated some progressive aspects of modernity. For him, all aspects of modernity are disciplinary, which is quite difficult to accept. Foucault’s analysis did not focus so much on the question of right but rather on the mechanisms through which power effects are produced. Instead of fixing the legitimacy of science or asking what the proper domain of certain knowledge is, Foucault examined the role of certain knowledge in the production of effects of power.

 

The second criticism of Foucault’s work is that he disregarded the fact that domination has its basis in the relations of production, exploitation, and in the organization of the state. In line with Poulantzas’ criticisms, one can note that Foucault neglected to study the modern form of the state and its derivation from capitalist perspective of production. He did not see that all social phenomena always occur in relation to the state and class division. He exaggerated the importance of disciplinary techniques in the modern state and thus neglected the continued importance of violence, legal coercion, and law in general. Unlike Poulantzas who saw some virtues (reproducing consent) to law and state (involves in constituting social relations and winning mass support), Foucault emphasized only the repressive, prohibitive side of law and the positive productive side of (state) power.

Conclusion

Foucault’s work can be summarized in three major shifts from the archaeological focus on systems of knowledge in the 1960s, to the genealogical focus on modalities of power in the 1970s and to the focus on technologies of the self, ethics, and freedom in the 1980s. Foucault contributed in many fields in the humanities and social sciences. As a member of postmodernist movement and in line with their deconstruction paradigm, he tried to show the problematic and suspicious aspects of rationality, knowledge, subjectivity, and the production of social norms. He thought that the quest of power invaded social and personal life and pervaded schools, hospitals, prisons, and social sciences. Foucault saw a link between power, truth and knowledge and he argued that liberal-humanist values became entangled with, and the supports of technologies of domination. He criticized both macro theorists who see power only in terms of class or the state, and micro theorists who analyze institutions and face-to-face interaction while ignoring power altogether.

299 replies on “Foucault and the Critique of Modernity”

Hello, Dear Author!
I’m Katherine i live in France and I am Sociologist.
You wrote a excellent one, I am added it to my Internet Explorer fast rss reader.
piece of your one interesting for my personal blog guests.
I want re-post your article to my web-site.
Can i to do that, if I add a link to your popular personal blog ?
I found your long post in the altavista ..
Looks like your perfect free blog have six hundreds guests at your great weblog now, superb effect for every writer.

You you could make changes to the post subject title Foucault and the Critique of Modernity Dr. Alain Nkoyock to something more suited for your webpage you create. I enjoyed the blog post however.

This is getting a bit more subjective, but I much prefer the Zune Marketplace. The interface is colorful, has more flair, and some cool features like ‘Mixview’ that let you quickly see related albums, songs, or other users related to what you’re listening to. Clicking on one of those will center on that item, and another set of “neighbors” will come into view, allowing you to navigate around exploring by similar artists, songs, or users. Speaking of users, the Zune “Social” is also great fun, letting you find others with shared tastes and becoming friends with them. You then can listen to a playlist created based on an amalgamation of what all your friends are listening to, which is also enjoyable. Those concerned with privacy will be relieved to know you can prevent the public from seeing your personal listening habits if you so choose.

Thank you… I’m going to add this to my favorites. If I may ask, what got you started into blogging? To be honest I’ve just been catching on to this hobbie and it’s really begun to inspire me to begin a blog of my own. I’ve tried but nothing that material has occured as of yet. You seem established, hints would be appreciated…

Hiya, I am really glad I have found this website. Nowadays people publish only about sport and internet and this piss me off. A good blog with interesting content, this is what I need. Thanks for keeping this website, I will be visiting it. It seems like your RSS channel is not working.

Hello dude, you’ve got an excellent weblog. I enjoy it. And I think several people today will love as well. Why not strive harder to optimize your internet site, so it is going to be simpler to discover this weblog in search engine. I do not understand how to, but I am aware you can do a bit tweak with your website to have a much better place. Several people today will thanks to your good facts. Wonderful position!

Wonderful blog! I truly love how it is easy on my eyes as well as the facts are well written. I am wondering how I can be notified whenever a new post has been made. I have subscribed to your rss feed which need to do the trick! Have a nice day!

Thanks so much for this wonderful article; this is the kind of thing that continues me though out the day. I’ve been searching around for your article after I heard about them from a friend and was thrilled when I was able to find it after searching for some time. Being a avid blogger, I’m happy to see others taking initiative and contributing to the community. I just wanted to comment to show my appreciation for your post as it’s very encouraging, and many writers do not get the credit they deserve. I am sure I’ll be back and will spread the word to my friends.

Hello dude, you might have an excellent weblog. I adore it. And I believe that many people will adore too. Why not attempt harder to optimize your internet site, so it will likely be much easier to come across this web site in search engine. I will not know how to, but I realize it is possible to do slightly tweak with your site to obtain a greater position. Quite a few people today will thanks to your wonderful facts. Wonderful task!

Hi, your write-up is really instructive and I actually like the content exactly where in each detail is very useful. By some means, it provides me more understanding about things that’s happening nowadays. But I was really hard to find it with google. Maybe you should improve it with seo plugins for wp like WP seo. Just a tip..

This is my first time i visit here. I found so many interesting stuff in your blog especially its discussion. From the tons of comments on your articles, I guess I am not the only one having all the enjoyment here keep up the good work.

Hello man, I just browsing by means of the web searching for some information on this and came across your blog. I am very glad by the info that you just have here. It shows how good you comprehend this. Bookmarked this blog for further reading, will come back for more. But, wait… I feel your site a little slower, you can use w3 total cache if you use wordpress to speed up your blog. Just a tip… …

I start to dislike this spam from writing here figures on the blogs… Your journal looks as free without… Would You like to support me and inform to all the method you are using if You’re fighting against the spamers? TX

Hi! Someone in my Myspace group shared this website with us so I came to take a look. I’m definitely enjoying the information. I’m book-marking and will be tweeting this to my followers! Terrific blog and terrific style and design.

Hi I found this site by mistake when i was searching yahoo for this issue, I have to say your site is really helpful I also love the design, its amazing!. I don’t have the time at the moment to fully read your site but I have bookmarked it and also signed up for your RSS feeds. I will be back in a day or two. thanks for a great site.

Good day I was luck to look for your topic in google
your post is excellent
I learn much in your topic really thank your very much
btw the theme of you blog is really magnificentsuper
where can find it

Leave a Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *